Special Studies
MANHATTAN: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
byVincent C. Jones
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON, D.C., 1985
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON, D.C., 1985
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This volume is "under development" and will be completed as time allows...
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Contents
Foreword vii The Author viii Preface ix Prologue: A History of Atomic Energy to 1939 3 Uranium and Fission 8 Efforts To Enlist Support of the U.S. Government 12 Chapter Page Part One: Beginnings of the Atomic Mission I. The Army and the Atomic Energy Program, 1939-1942 19 Origins of the Army's Role 19 Decision To Develop Atomic Weapons 21 Establishment of the NDRC and OSRD 26 New Advances in Atomic Research, 1940-1941 28 Top Policy Group: Preparing for Army Take Over 30 Progress in Research and Development: The Nuclear Steeplechase 35 II. Establishing the MANHATTAN District 40 Organizing the District 41 Army-OSRD Planning Meeting, 25 June 1942 46 Progress in Research and Development 50 III. First Steps for Weapon Development 55 Securing an Architect-Engineer-Manager 55 Obtaining Funds 56 Securing a Priority Rating 57 Procuring Essential Materials 61 Site Selection 67 Researching Decisions: The Meeting at Bohemian Grove 70 IV. General Groves Takes Command 73 Reorganization and the Selection of Groves 73 First Measures 78 Establishment of Los Alamos 82 MANHATTAN Project Organization and Operation 88 Part Two: Producing Fissionable Materials V. Organizing for Production 95 Plutonium Project 95 Reassessment of Processes To Produce a Bomb 101 Contract Negotiations 105 Hanford Engineer Works 108 Plutonium Semiworks: Argonne vs. Tennessee 111 Program Funding 115 VI. The Electromagnetic Process 117 Electromagnetic Research and the Army, 1942-1943 118 Research and Development, 1943-1945: Radiation Laboratory 120 Design and Engineering, 1943-1945 126 Building the Electromagnetic Plant 130 Plant Operation 140 VII. The Gaseous Diffusion Process 149 Gaseous Diffusion Research and the Army, 1942-1943 149 Design and Engineering 150 Building the Gaseous Diffusion Plant 159 Plant Operation 165 VIII. The Liquid Thermal Diffusion Process 172 Research and Development: The Role of the Navy 172 Reassessment: Decision for Full-scale Development 174 Plant Design, Engineering, and Construction 178 Plant Operation 180 IX. The Pile Process 184 Research and Development: Metallurgical Laboratory 185 Organization for Plutonium Production 198 The Semiworks: Clinton Laboratories 204 The Hanford Production Plant 210 Part Three: Support Activities X. Anglo-American Collaboration 227 Breakdown of Interchange 227 The Quebec Agreement 232 Implementing the Agreement 242 New Partnership Strains: Repatriation of French Scientists 248 XI. Security 253 Early Aspects 253 The District's Security System 254 Counterintelligence Activities 259 Safeguarding Military Information 268 XII. Foreign Intelligence Operations 280 Organization of the ALSOS Mission 280 ALSOS Operations in Italy 281 MANHATTAN's Special Intelligence Activities, 1944 282 ALSOS Operations iN Western Europe, 1944-1945 285 XIII. The Raw Materials Program 292 Geographic Search and Field Exploration 292 Ore Control Agency: Combined Development Trust 295 Ore Acquisition in Foreign Areas 299 XIV. The Feed Materials Program 307 Program Organization and Support Activities 307 Feed Materials Procurement 310 Feed Materials Production 314 Quality Control Program 317 XV. Land Acquisition 319 Clinton Engineer Works 319 Los Alamos 328 Hanford Engineer Works 331 Other Sites 342 XVI. Manpower Procurement 344 Personnel Organization 345 Scientific and Technical Personnel 348 Industrial Labor 350 Civilian and Military Personnel 355 XVII. Manpower Conservation 363 Labor Turnover: The Problem and Its Cure 363 Special Problems With the Selective Service System 366 Labor Relations: Union Activities and Work Stoppages 369 XVIII. Electric Power 377 Power Requirements and Sources 377 Implementation of the Power Program 386 Distribution: Clinton Engineer Works 388 Distribution: Hanford Engineer Works 391 XIX. Communications and Transportation 394 Communications 394 Transportation 397 XX. Health and Safety 410 The Health Program 411 The Safety Program 426 XXI. The Atomic Communities in Tennessee 432 Oak Ridge: The Operating Community 432 The Construction Camps 440 Community Management 443 XXII. The Atomic Communities in Washington State 450 Selecting Sites 450 Hanford: The Construction Camp 452 Richland: The Operating Community 456 Community Management 460 XXIII. The Atomic Communities in New Mexico 465 Los Alamos: The Operating Community 465 TRINITY: The Base Camp 478 Part Four: The Bomb XXIV. The Los Alamos Weapon Program 485 Planning Phase 485 Laboratory Administration 491 Post Administration 496 XXV. Weapon Development and Testing 503 Building the Bomb 503 Project TRINITY: The Test of the Bomb 511 XXVI. The Atomic Bombing of Japan 519 Preparations for an Atomic Bombing Mission 519 The Decision To Use the Bomb 530 Dropping the Bomb 534 The Surrender of Japan 541 Survey of the Bombing Effects 543 Part Five: Completing the Atomic Mission XXVII. The Atomic Age and Its Problems 553 The Atomic Story: Informing the Public 553 Atomic Energy: Planning for Postwar Control 562 XXVIII. The Army and the Atomic Energy Program, 1945-1947 579 A Postwar Trusteeship 579 The Final Act: Transfer to Civilian Control 596 Epilogue: An Atomic Legacy 602 Appendix--Einstein's Letter 609 Bibliographical Note 611 Guide to Archival Collections 627 List of Abbreviations --- Index 643 Tables 1. Stone and Webster Engineering and Design Personnel 127 2. Land Acquisition at CEW, 1942-1944 321 3. Comparative Estimates of Atomic Bombing Casualties in World War II 547 Charts 1. Organization of the MANHATTAN Project, April 1943 88 2. Organization of the MANHATTAN Project, August 1943 90 3. Organization of the MANHATTAN Project, January 1945 166 4. Feed Materials Network, January 1945 309 5. Estimated Officer Personnel Requirements for the MANHATTAN District, January 1943 356 Maps 1. Projected Site for Atomic Production Plants, Tennessee, 1942 48 2. MANHATTAN Project, 1942-1946 63 3. Clinton Engineer Works, Tennessee, 1943-1945 131 4. Hanford Engineer Works, Washington, 1943-1945 213 5. Los Alamos Site, New Mexico, 1943-1945 330 6 TRINITY Test Site, 1945 479 7. The Atomic Bombing of Japan, August 1945 525 Illustrations Maj. Gen. Leslie R. Groves Frontispiece ... ... Transfer of Control to the Atomic Energy Commission 600 Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: p. 89 from Typography and Design Division, Government Printing Office; pp. 361, 474, and 582 from Col. Gerald T. Tyler; and p. 600 from Wide World Photos. All other illustrations are from the files of the Department of Defense and the Department of Energy.
