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Breeding food crops for environments subject to climate stress
I volunteered to make a presentation to our weekly Plant
Breeding Journal Club, to plant breeders and graduate students in
Agronomy and the Horticultural Sciences (Fruit Crops and Vegetable
Crops). Although the date for the informal presentation is almost
here, Thursday, 16 March, I have a long term interest and concerns
about the subject. So, if you have input, I would be happy to hear
from you, even if March 16 is long gone.
I will be exploring a somewhat controversial subject - breeding
food crops for environments likely to be increasingly subject to
irregular precipitation (or as one of my colleagues in Africa put
it, breeding food crops for a population increasingly subject to
aberrations in climatic patterns):
Here is a bit of background - my farming systems work (I am a
plant breeder by training) in Africa (primarily in Mozambique) has
repeatedly shown that small farmers *want* earlier-maturing
varieties. There are two reasons for their interest in early
varieties: the limited-input farmers (the term in Mozambique is
"family sector" farmers) have been experiencing shortened rainy
seasons with increasing regularity and severity (1992 was worst in
living memory), and, early-maturing varieties reduce the amount of
time in the period known as the "hunger months."
I got to wondering if this experience in Africa may be
applicable to broader concerns, in years to come. This would make
a good topic to discuss with fellow faculty and some of tomorrow's
breeders (the grad students). Clearly, there are a couple
plausible ways for at-risk environments to originate or increase in
importance:
1) increasing pressure to use more marginal land for food
crops - be it the result of increasing pressures of a growing
human population, or simply, degradation of favorable crop
land and natural resources, or,
2) mounting concerns that the increasing levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse gases" may
result in modifications to environments here-to-fore favorable
to crop production (granted, some previously unfavorable may
become favorable).
I went to our campus library and searched AGRICOLA and
CAB databases, using keywords "plant breeding" and "climate
change." I got two "hits," neither of which are in our library:
A) Hillman, J.R. 1992. Opportunities and problems in plant
biotechnology - an overview. Proc. of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. Section B: Biological Sciences. 99:3-4, 173-182.
17 refs.
B) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Dev. 1992.
Biotechnology, Agriculture and Food. 219 pp. Address:
Scottish Crop Res. Ins. Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK.
I invite input and suggestions on the general theme, and if
someone could help me obtain the Hillman article (A above) I would
be grateful.
Thanks in advance.
Ken Buhr
Agronomy, U of Florida
KLB@gnv.ifas.ufl.edu
Date: Thu, 14 Oct 93 16:25:28 EDT
From: Carolina.Farm.Stewardship@calypso (cfsa.inc@launchpad.oit.unc.edu)
Cc: Marjorie Bender <cfsa.inc@launchpad.oit.unc.edu>
Subject: News release for Sust Ag Conference
Building Sustainable Communities Through Sustainable Agriculture
RALEIGH - The 8th annual Sustainable Agriculture Conference is
being held Friday, November 12 through Sunday, November 14, 1993
at the McKimmon Center at North Carolina State University in
Raleigh, NC. Farmers, consumers, agriculture advocates, food
processors, distributors and retailers, and government and
university representatives will join forces to focus on "Building
Sustainable Communities," this year's theme. The conference is a
project of the Carolina Farm Stewardship Association (CFSA). For
the past thirteen years, CFSA has promoted sustainable and
organic agriculture through advocacy, certification, market
promotion, education, and research. This annual conference is
the highlight of these efforts.
Public concern for water and food pesticide contamination is
growing. Recent reports from the National Academy of Sciences on
the measurement standards used to study the impact of pesticides
on children has caused alarm. Farmers are faced with increased
pressure to reduce pesticide use. Some of today's most urgent
environmental and health questions involve clean water, healthy
soil, and a safe and consistent food supply. Sustainable
agriculture methods answer these questions directly and
demonstrate not only the possibility, but also the profitability,
of sustainable practices.
The primary objective of this conference is to bring
together people from all aspects of the agriculture industry to
interact, learn and share information as we work towards creating
a sustainable future together. The sponsors represent the
diversity and strength of this collaborative effort: Agriculture
Resources Center, Albert's Organics, Carolina Farm Stewardship
Association, Clemson University, Corganics, Harmony Farms, McGill
Environmental, Necessary Trading Company, North Carolina A&T
University, NC Cooperative Extension Service, NC Department of
Agriculture, NC State University, Rural Advancement Foundation
International, South Carolina Land Resources, Conservation
Commission, and Wellspring Grocery. Additionally, this
conference is being held concurrently with the NC Solar Energy
Association's annual conference.
Friday's program will set the stage for discussing the role
of sustainable agriculture in the bigger picture of developing
sustainable communities. Wes Jackson of the Land Institute in
Salina, Kansas, who is known within the sustainable agriculture
community as a visionary leader, will be the keynote speaker. He
will deliver his address, entitled "On Becoming Native to this
Place," at the awards banquet Friday, November 12 at 7:30 p.m.
Mike Nicklas, of the International Solar Energy Society, will
also speak Friday. An afternoon panel will focus on the
relationships between natural resources and how technologies for
different disciplines and resources can be linked together to
support sustainable agriculture and sustainable communities.
A total of twelve workshops Saturday and Sunday will offer
in-depth information on organic production methods, biological
pest control, permaculture, farm biodiversity, rotational
grazing, alternative energy, and intentional communities.
Representatives from the region will discuss their experience and
new developments. A tour of the North Carolina Solar Home will
be held on Sunday. This conference will provide hand-on,
technical and practical information about agriculture production
practices which reduce the need for chemical applications.
Sustainable agriculture solutions embody a systems approach
that considers farmers' economic and lifestyle need. Mutual
goals of consumer and production demands to provide quality,
healthy food are achieved with sustainable agriculture.
Alternative production methods and marketing strategies show
growth potential at a time when growth is needed. Approximately
600 acres in the Carolinas are certified by the CFSA and are
currently in organic crop production. This represents 29 farms,
of which 27 are certified organic and two are certified
transitional organic. Today, according to the Organic Crop
Improvement Association (OCIA), 5% of the total farm population
nationally is certified organic, and that figure is growing.
Ticket are available for the 8th annual Sustainable
Agriculture Conference being held Friday, November 12 through
Sunday, November 14, 1993 at the McKimmon Center at North
Carolina State University in Raleigh, NC. Tickets for the awards
banquet only, featuring keynote speaker Wes Jackson, Friday,
November 12 at 7:30 p.m., are $25.00 and are available now.
After October 22, call for banquet ticket availability. Student
rates are available. For registration or other information,
contact Marjorie Bender at CFSA (919/968-1030).
###
Article 13461 of rec.gardens:
Newsgroups: rec.gardens
Path: samba!concert!gatech!swrinde!sdd.hp.com!elroy.jpl.nasa.gov!ames!pacbell.com!well!kjp
From: kjp@well.sf.ca.us (Karen Paulsell)
Subject: Re: Alan Chadwick 1979 Lecture on Anemone Culture
Message-ID: <C23n3u.Apu@well.sf.ca.us>
Sender: news@well.sf.ca.us
Organization: Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link
References: <1993Feb7.041837.7244@samba.oit.unc.edu>
Date: Sun, 7 Feb 1993 22:14:17 GMT
Lines: 8
Thank you, I enjoyed that immensely! More, you have more?
I heard Chadwick speak once, and while I didn't (quite) get the urge
to throw up my life and move to Round Valley for the requisite year of
study, I could certainly understand that impulse in the many who did so.
I could hear his voice echoing through that post, and will look at my
anemones with new respect.
COVER CROP CHOICES
Legumes
Other Legume Cover Crops
Non-Legumes
Other Non-Legume Cover Crops
Legume-Grass Mixtures
LEGUMES
alfalfa
Austrian winter pea
clover, berseem
clover, crimson
clover, mammoth red
clover, medium red
clover, subterranean
clover, white
lupine, blue
sweetclover, annual
sweetclover, yellow-blossom
vetch, bigflower
vetch, hairy
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
About the crop
Perennial legume. Overwinters in most of New England (NITRO variety
is non-dormant and winterkills in North). Won't not tolerate wet or
acidic soil. Seedlings won't tolerate competition.
High N producer. Can supply 80% to 100% of N needed for
winter wheat (West). Can help make P and micronutrients more
available to subsequent crops. Once established, alfalfa is
winter-hardy, vigorous and highly competitive.
Excess N from alfalfa plowdown can cause yield loss in first
cereal crop to follow, but yields increase after that (West). One
of the most expensive cover crops to seed. Can be hard to kill,
because of extensive root system. Requires lots of K to maintain
stand longevity.
Seeding and management
9-25 lbs./A
Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep. In
south-coastal New England, plant in Apr. or May, or in Aug. For
NITRO annual alfalfa in Montana, seed 6-9 lbs./A in mid-Apr. for
top forage yield. In Missouri, broadcast (or drill % to ~/2 inch
deep) 8-15 lbs./A between Mar. 1 and Apr. 15 or between Aug. 15 and
Sept. 1.
Small grains -- In West, alfalfa typically is grown in pure
stand or with grass for 3-5 years. Then its either cut for hay or
clipped and used for ACR set aside before being plowed and followed
by wheat.
Vegetables -- Alfalfa can be used as 2- to 4-year sod in
rotation with vegetables (Northeast).
Austrian winter pea (Pisum sativum, var. arvense)
About the crop
Winter-annual legume. Viny like vetch, but more determinant growth
habit. Probably not suitable for areas with severe winters.
High N content, breaks down quickly when killed to provide N
rapidly.
Won't tolerate traffic. Ascochyta fungus is a key threat;
MELROSE variety has some tolerance. Avoid growing the peas for
successive winters in same field; Sclerotinia rot may damage new
stands in late winter.
Seeding and management
60-90 lbs./A
Seed from Sept. 10 to Oct. 10 in Mid-Atlantic. Seed in Oct. in
South. In south-coastal New England, drill 1-2 inches deep in Apr.
or Aug.; rate = 60-120 lbs./A.
When planted in early spring, Austrian winter peas may provide
plowdown N by Memorial Day for a summer annual cash crop in
Northeast.
Aerial seeding is seldom successful. Peas are very succulent
and usually can be killed with a light disking. Experts in
Mid-Atlantic suggest seeding and killing methods for peas are
similar to those for hairy vetch. In South, can be killed in spring
by plowing or with herbicides for no-till.
Small grains -- In West, fall-plant peas after grain harvest.
Some research shows harvesting pea seed before plowdown has no
effect on subsequent wheat yield. But in general, removal of pea
crop reduces N benefit to next crop.
Clover, berseem (Thfolium alexandrium)
About the crop
Winter-annual legume (South) or summer annual (West). Survives
light frost, but kills at 18 F, so it overwinters irregularly (if
at all) in Northeast and northern North-Central. Grows erect;
typically does not reseed itself. Well-adapted to areas with warm
winters and minimal frost danger. Good seedling vigor; rapid growth
and regrowth.
Its rapid establishment compared with other legumes makes
berseem clover a good smother crop for weedy fields. BIGBEE,
TOPCUT and MULTICUT are main varieties; they can withstand several
mowings per season. BIGBEE retains seed well; yields 250-350 lbs./A
in Mississippi, 300 lbs./A in Montana (dryland; harvest in late
Sept.), and 500 lbs./A in California. Excellent forage for
ruminants. High N-fixation potential. Similar to alfalfa in
drought-tolerance; moderate tolerance to waterlogged and saline
soils. Grows in variety of soil types. No reported cases of bloat
in ruminants feeding on berseem.
BIGBEE variety is susceptible to crown rot. Berseem clover is
susceptible to injury from certain herbicides (West; low-rainfall
areas); least risky is EPTC at 3 lbs. of active ingredient per
acre.
Seeding and management
9-20 lbs./A
Seed as early as possible in spring. Oct. planting is possible
but marginal in South. 6-9 lbs./A in Montana; seed in mid-Apr. for
best forage yield. Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed V4 to V2
inch deep. In south-coastal New England, plant in May or Aug.
In South, can be killed in spring by plowing or with
herbicides for no-till. Tremendous biomass production during cool
and warm months makes it a good choice for a "mow-and-blow" green
manure system (Northeast). In California, Arizona and Gulf Coast
states, berseem clover is grazed, fed as greenchop or baled as hay;
also used as green manure and as companion crop with annual
grasses.
To control weeds in berseem without herbicides, increase
seeding rate, and cut early for forage.
Clover, crimson (Trifolium, incarnatum)
About the crop
Winter-annual legume with bunch, upright determinant growth habit.
The only annual clover that consistently overwinters in
southeastern Pennsylvania. Also overwinters in southern New
England. Flowers between May 1 and May 15 in Mid-Atlantic. Taller
flower stems and larger seeds than red cloven Hardy varieties such
as KENTUCKY SELECT and DIXIE have overwintered in northeastern
Connecticut. CHIEF is also very winter-hardy. Ky C-1 germ plasm,
selected for winter-hardiness and released by Univ. of Kentucky,
outyielded all other varieties tested in Lexington, Kentucky. This
experimental variety may perform well in North-Central and
Northeast.
Adapted to sandy, well-drained soils with ordinary acidity.
Apply P and K as indicated by soil test; if P is needed, place it
in band below and to side of seed at planting. Boron has improved
growth and seed yield on some soils.
N content -- 2% to 3%. In southeastern Pennsylvania, pure
stand of crimson clover contained 111 lbs. N/A on May 10, 1985.
Produced average of 2,000 lbs. biomass/A (maximum 4,000 lbs./A) in
southeastern Pennsylvania. Also one of the fastest-growing legume
covers tested at this site, making it an excellent choice where
fall weeds are a problem. Produces better fall growth and ground
cover than hairy vetch in Mid-Atlantic. Often has high percentage
of hard seed, which can aid natural reseeding. Larger-seeded and
faster-growing than many other clovers, so it can compete well with
winter-annual weeds.
Not as winter-hardy as hairy vetch in Mid-Atlantic. In colder
regions, and where soil heaving occurs in fall or early spring,
crimson clover must be well-established or it will winter-kill.
However, rank fail growth may invite crown and stem rot, which may
kill the plants.
Seeding and management
12-20 lbs./A
In Mid-Atlantic, best seeding time is from mid-Aug. to first
week of Sept. In South, can seed 15-30 lbs./A in Oct. In Northeast,
seed 20-30 lbs./A in Aug. Can also be planted in spring or early
summer in Northeast, in which case it will bloom within two or
three months. Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2 inch
deep. In south-coastal New England, plant 15-40 lbs./A in Apr.
through May or in Aug. through Sept. In Missouri, drill 15-20
lbs./A 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep from Aug. 15 to Sept. 15.
When planted in early spring, crimson clover may provide
plowdown N by Memorial Day for a summer annual cash crop in
Northeast. Mow, or kill with plow or herbicide, at early bloom when
N-fixation has peaked. If allowed to set seed before being killed,
crimson clover often naturally reseeds in fall in Mid-Atlantic. In
Mid-Atlantic rotations, uses are similar to hairy vetch (including
no-till and conventional planting methods). Aerial seeding crimson
clover in Mid-Atlantic has been less successful than with vetch but
better than with Austrian winter peas. In Missouri, a good stand of
crimson clover produces 1 ton or more of dry hay per acre if left
to flowering, in which case sorghum could still be planted
afterward.
Corn -- Plant corn into clover killed in spring by plowing or
with herbicides (Mid-Atlantic and South). May be possible to seed
after silage harvest (Mid-Atlantic).
Fruits -- In South, crimson clover as a living mulch in
blueberries was found to be as cost-effective as a conventional
blueberry fertilizer and herbicide program.
Clover, mammoth red (Trifolium pratense)
About the crop
Vigorous, hardy single-cut biennial legume. Over-winters in most
of New England.
Fixes considerable N while its large, fairly deep root system
conditions the soil. Can help make P and micronutrients more
available to subsequent crops. Grows slowly at first (Northeast),
but is easier to establish than alfalfa and some other small-seeded
legumes, because it's more tolerant of moderate drainage and clayey
or acid soils. Tolerant of shading from weeds (Northeast); also
tolerates shade from cash crops when overseeded.
Does poorly in hot, dry conditions; may fail if sown in summer
or if weed pressure is intense (Northeast).
Seeding and management
8-15 lbs./A
Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep. In
south-coastal New England, plant in Apr. or May, or in Aug.
Usually planted in spring and grown for entire year before
being incorporated into the soil (Northeast).
Corn -- Overseed mammoth red clover when corn is at least 6
inches tall (Northeast).
Soybeans -- Overseed mammoth red clover when soybeans are at
least 6 inches tall (Northeast).
Small grains -- On land that's too steep, rough or wet to work
in spring, frost-seed mammoth red clover in early March into
existing stand of winter wheat or winter rye (Northeast).
Clover, medium red (Trifolium pratense)
About the crop
Short-lived, perennial legume. Most common perennial legume cover
crop in Northeast.
When frost-seeded into wheat, it produced 2,000 lbs. biomass/A
and about 80 lbs. N/A as plowdown by May before corn planting in
southeastern Pennsylvania. Overwinters in most of New England. Can
help make P and micronutrients more available to subsequent crops.
Can be established under various conditions (North-Central).
Does not perform very well when treated as winter annual and
plowed down in spring in Northeast.
Seeding and management
10-15 lbs./A
Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep. In
south-coastal New England, plant 8-15 lbs./A in Apr. or May, or in
Aug. In Missouri, broadcast (or drill 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep) 8-10
lbs./A before Sept. 1, or overseed into small grains in Feb.
Corn -- Overseed medium red clover at last cultivation
(Northeast).
Soybeans -- Soybeans should not follow red clover, because bud
blight, a disease of soybeans, can be transmitted by volunteer
clover plants.
Small grains -- Frost-seed red clover into wheat in Mar.
(Northeast); many growers harvest for hay through the following
year. Red clover has been successfully interseeded with spring
wheat (and with spring peas) in southeastern Washington.
Vegetables -- Broadcast into competitive cash crops in early
summer, such as winter squash before vines run, or sweet corn at
tasseling.
Clover, subterranean (Trifolium subterranaum)
About the crop
Low-growing, winter-annual legume. Probably not suitable for areas
with severe winters.
Produces tight, thick sward that's very effective at
suppressing weeds. Produces many of its seeds below soil surface
(like peanuts), so if killed late enough, it reseeds very well.
Low percentage of hard seed, so it may germinate anytime in
summer when conditions are right. If all seeds germinate in
summer, stands may not last through corn harvest, because subclover
is very susceptible to shading. It is well-adapted to the Coastal
Plains of Maryland, but not to Piedmont Maryland. Subclover proved
less winter-hardy than many other winter-annual legumes tested in
Maryland, and it produced less N than crimson clover, hairy vetch
and Austrian winter peas.
Seeding and management
9-20 lbs./A
Seed from Sept. 10 to Oct. 10 (Mid-Atlantic). In South, seed
10 lbs./A in Oct. Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2
inch deep. In south-coastal New England, plant 20-30 lbs./A in
Apr. through May, or in Aug. through Sept.
Should be drilled for best results. If irrigation is
available, allow subclover to grow until it dies naturally in July
(Mid-Atlantic); ample seed will then be available for natural
reseeding in fall. N production will also be best with that
method. Can be killed in spring by plowing or with herbicides for
no-till (South).
Corn -- Subclover works well ahead of corn, provided ground is
irrigated during fall establishment and spring corn planting
(Mid-Atlantic). Can also seed after silage harvest (Mid-Atlantic).
Vegetables -- In New England, seed subclover into early
vegetables and allow it to winterkill.
Clover, white (Trifolium repens)
About the crop
Perennial legume. Efficient water-user. Overwinters in most of New
England. LADINO is a medium to tall variety used a lot for pasture
and hay. "Common white" clover (also called "White Dutch") is more
low-growing.
Widely adaptable, but prefers well-drained silt loam or clay
with pH of 6-7.
Once established, it is long-lived and it requires little
maintenance, but biomass is never outstanding (Northeast).
Tolerates wet soils better than most other clovers or legumes.
Although drought-tolerant, white clover doesn't compete well
with summer weeds if it's seeded in summer (Northeast). Not
competitive with grasses in mixtures, unless N fertilizer is
withheld and the stand is mowed frequently.
Seeding and management
5- 7 lbs./A
Does best if sown in spring, but can be established in fall,
too (Northeast). Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2
inch deep. In south-coastal New England, plant 1-12 lbs./A in Apr.
or May, or in Aug. In Missouri, broadcast (or drill 1/4 to 1/2 inch
deep) 2-4 lbs./A before Sept. 1, or overseed into small grains in
Feb.
Fruits -- White clover is considered a good living mulch or
cover crop in berries and other perennial cash crops, as long as
irrigation is available during droughty periods (Northeast).
Lupine, blue (Lupinus angustifolia)
About the crop
Winter-annual legume with variable tolerance to frost.
Does best in coarse, well-drained soils with pH of 5.0 to 6.5.
Deep root system is sensitive to waterlogging; planting in poorly
drained soils can cause root rot and loss of stand. No P or K
should be needed when lupines are grown as cover or green manure.
Properly inoculated lupines can fix up to 70 lbs. N/A. Large
seed size may limit seeding rate. Poor competitor with weeds.
Susceptible to root rot fungi (Fusarium and Rhizoctonia),
especially on heavier, poorly drained soils. Also susceptible to
damage from seed corn maggot, potato leafhopper and tarnished plant
bug. However, weeds, diseases and insects should not be a concern
for fall-sown lupine covers (Northeast).
Seeding and management
As cover crop, lupines probably would be best seeded at
14,500-22,000 plants/A with 40-50 lbs. of oats/A in early Aug.
(Northeast). However, more research is needed on lupine seeding
rates for cover crop mixtures. Blue lupine may require lower
seeding rate than white lupine to produce adequate biomass.
For seed harvest, recommended population is 260,000 seeds/A
planted in 6- to 10-inch rows (plant early Apr. in southern New
England and up until early May in northern New England).
Can be seeded into relatively rough seedbed provided seed
depth is between 3/4 and 1 3/4 inches with good seed-soil contact.
No-till seedings are possible in previously cropped fields, but
adequate depth and seed-soil contact still are important.
If planted in late summer or in fall, lupines will continue
growing until killed by frost (Northeast). When planted in early
spring, they may provide plowdown N by Memorial Day for a
summer-annual cash crop in Northeast.
Sweetclover, annual (Melilotus alba)
About the crop
A true annual; survives only one winter. Deep taproot and
well-developed root system. HUBAM var. has tremendous warm-season
growth potential in Northeast. Has grown 6 feet tall by mid-July
when seeded in early May in southeastern Pennsylvania.
Needs soil pH of 6.0 for proper nodulation; otherwise, widely
adaptable.
Can help make P and micronutrients more available to
subsequent crops.
Has poor cold-tolerance and won't grow late into fall in
Northeast.
Seeding and management
15-25 lbs./A
Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep. In
south-coastal New England, plant in Apr. or May. In Missouri,
broadcast (or drill 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep) 8-15 lbs./A before Sept.
1, or overseed into small grains in Feb.
Small grains -- Annual sweetclover has performed well when
overseeded into winter wheat (Northeast).
Vegetables -- Overseed annual sweetclover into broccoli and
other fall crops (Northeast).
Sweetclover, yellow-blossom (Melilotus officinalis)
About the crop
Biennial legume. Blooms in late spring the year after seeding.
Deep, strong taproot. Overwinters in most of New England.
Useful for breaking up plowpan. Also said to be efficient at
drawing up nutrients from deep in soil profile. Can supply about
100 lbs. of plowdown N/A (North-Central). Provides good weed
control because of competitive nature in second year
(North-Central). Residues of yellow-blossom sweetclover are said to
have allelopathic effect on stinkweed and green foxtail; repeated
plowdowns of yellow-blossom sweetclover also reportedly have
eradicated Canada thistle.
Seeding and management
9-15 lbs./A
Can broadcast and roll, or drill seed 1/4 to 1/2 inch deep.
In south-coastal New England, plant 10-20 lbs./A in Apr. or May, or
in Aug.
Most appropriate as full-year fallow on heavy or compacted
ground (Northeast). In West and dry parts of North-Central,
yellow-blossom sweetclover usually is planted on fallow land with
spring barley or spring peas; but barley can be competitive, and
herbicide compatibility is a concern with peas. In West, yellow-
blossom sweetclover grows 10-16 inches first year, is left to
overwinter, then regrows in spring for plowdown in mid-June or
early July. N content in above-ground foliage levels off when
plant is 12-16 inches tail in second year, so plow it early to
conserve soil moisture.
Corn -- Overseed yellow-blossom sweetclover into corn or
sunflowers at last cultivation (North-Central).
Soybeans -- Overseed yellow-blossom sweetclover at last
cultivation (North-Central).
Small grains -- Seed yellow-blossom sweetclover at 12-15
lbs./A if sowing on clean seedbed; can be frost-seeded at slightly
higher rates into winter grains (Northeast). Can be used on fallow
land before winter wheat every 3-6 years (West). In Plains,
yellow-blossom sweetclover usually is sown with wheat, oats or
barley, and then it is plowed the following year.
Vetch, bigflower (Vicia grandiflora)
About the crop
Winter-annual legume.
At least as cold-tolerant as hairy vetch in Pennsylvania,
where it has consistently performed well when drilled in mid-Aug.
Midwest farmers say big flower vetch overwintered without damage
during 1990-91 in areas where hairy vetch frost-killed. Flowers two
to three weeks earlier than hairy vetch, but only produces about
two-thirds as much biomass, making it a good option for farmers who
want to no-till cash crops into a cover without herbicides.
Overwinters in southern New England (has survived three consecutive
winters in northeastern Connecticut). Matures early (Northeast),
so it has potential to produce seed in late spring, interfering
with row crops planted on same ground. Resistant to vetch weevil
and anthracnose disease.
Seed is expensive and difficult to obtain, unless the crop
reseeds itself.
Seeding and management
25-40 lbs./A
In south-coastal New England, drill 1/2 - 1 inch deep in Aug.
through Sept. In South, seed 10 lbs./A in Sept. or Oct. In upper
South, bigflower vetch grows better when seeded in mid-Sept. than
when seeded in mid-Oct.
When planted in early spring, bigflower vetch may provide
plowdown N by Memorial Day for a summer-annual cash crop in
Northeast. In South, it can be killed in spring by plowing or with
herbicides for no-till.
When bigflower vetch is overseeded into standing corn, traffic
at harvest will promote seed-soil contact. Mowing corn residue
after harvest will provide protective mulch so vetch can establish
and overwinter for no-till corn planting the next spring. Mow
vetch and weeds at corn emergence (one flail mowing in May killed
big flower vetch in Kentucky).
Corn -- Overseed bigflower vetch in mid-Sept., or drill after
silage harvest (Northeast).
Soybeans -- Overseed big flower vetch two weeks before leaf
drop (Northeast).
Vegetables -- In Northeast, overseed bigflower vetch into
sweet corn at last cultivation.
Vetch, hairy (Vicia villosa)
About the crop
Winter-annual legume. Thick, viny, climbing growth habit. Begins
flowering between May 15 and May 23 in southeastern Pennsylvania
when seeded from mid-Aug. to Sept. 1 (will bloom in July when
spring-seeded). Overwinters in most of New England.
Requires good seed-soil contact for germination. Timely rains
or irrigation will improve stands regardless of seeding method
used. Best-suited to well-drained soils; do not plant on poorly
drained soils. Produces well on moist soils in the South and in the
Delta region of Missouri. Relatively high P and K requirements; no
N needed. Can tolerate pH of 4.9 to 8.2; recommended pH in South is
5.8 to 6.5. Probably the most widely adapted -- and widely used --
of all winter legume cover crops in the country.
Produces the most biomass of all cover crops that will
overwinter in Pennsylvania: average = 3,000 to 4,000 lbs./A. N
content = 3% to 4.1% (250 lbs. N/A at 6,000 lbs. biomass/A). Breaks
down quickly when killed, to provide N fast. Resistant to root
rot. When growing, it competes well with weeds for nutrients, water
and light. May have allelopathic properties (though not as much as
grain rye). Can help make P and micronutrients more available to
subsequent crops.
At $0.60 to $1.50 per pound, vetch seed is relatively
expensive (a good reason to harvest your own seed). Stands may be
poor in dry weather, especially in corn, where there's no leaf drop
to cover seeds. Poor tolerance of wheel traffic. Susceptible to
vetch weevil and anthracnose disease. Grown alone, vetch can
suffer frost-heaving (Northeast). As vines elongate in spring, they
fall and become matted, which can limit growth and favor fungal
diseases. Its rapid decomposition could release N faster than
cash crop can use it, creating risk of N leaching into groundwater.
Seeding and management
25-40 lbs./A
Use the lower rate when drill-seeding with adequate moisture;
use the higher rate when broadcasting (drilling is preferred).
Plant between Aug. 15 and first week of Sept. in southeastern
Pennsylvania. Can plant as late as Oct. in South. In upper South,
hairy vetch grows better when seeded in mid-Sept. than when seeded
in mid-Oct. Use same seeding rate when mixing vetch with small
grain (Northeast). In south-coastal New England, drill %-1 inch
deep in Aug. through Sept.; rate = 15-60 lbs./A. In Missouri,
aerial-seed or broadcast (or drill 3/4 inch deep) 20-30 lbs./A
before Sept. 15, or overseed into small grains in Feb.
Kill between Apr. 20 and May 15 (Mid-Atlantic). Earlier kill
will reduce N contribution; later kill risks soil moisture
depletion. In South, can be killed in spring with plow or
herbicides for no-till. Plow or mow vetch before it sets mature
seed, to reduce risk of it becoming a weed. Rolling with disk has
suppressed vetch in Virginia research. Preliminary research shows
vetch can supply 75 lbs. N/A if killed in mid- to late May
(Northeast). Perhaps 50% of vetch N is available for first crop
after plowdown (less for no-till); the other half becomes available
in Years 2 and 3 (Northeast). Harvesting topgrowth can remove
80-90% of vetch N. To make best use of vetch's weed-killing
properties, kill it with low sickle- or flail-mowing (in mid- to
late May in southeastern Massachusetts), and leave it on the soil
surface as mulch.
Corn -- Drill hairy vetch after harvesting corn silage
(Northeast). Agronomists in southeastern Pennsylvania have
no-tilled corn into living hairy vetch mulch. They mowed vetch
seven to 10 days later, before corn has emerged too much (mower
must be set to clip vetch residue knocked down by tractor wheels).
Aerial seed into corn when canopy starts to open (Mid-Atlantic).
No-till vetch into corn stubble after harvesting silage or grain
(Mid-Atlantic). Light disking of stubble, followed by broadcast
seeding of vetch, also works well; avoid broadcasting vetch into
corn stubble without disking. Plowing vetch will maximize N
mineralization and eliminate need for burndown herbicide, but also
will reduce both soil moisture and ground cover during early corn
development. No-till planting corn into live vetch works well on
light soils in dry weather; kill vetch with herbicide or by mowing
when vetch blooms (but before risk of removing too much corn leaf
area). Mowing eliminates need for herbicide (except post-emerge),
but waiting for proper mowing time increases risk of soil moisture
depletion by vetch. With heavy soils and wet weather, your best bet
is killing vetch with herbicide a week or two before corn planting.
But don't plant no-till corn too soon after herbicide kill
(especially in wet soils), or you'll push tough plant material into
seed slots resulting in poor seed-soil contact for corn.
Soybeans -- Overseed hairy vetch around soybean leaf yellowing
(Northeast and Mid-Atlantic). Vetch can be a host of soybean cyst
nematode in the Midwest; nematode-resistant bean varieties are
available.
Small grains -- Hairy vetch can be a serious weed problem if
you're producing certified winter wheat seed.
Vegetables -- Drill hairy vetch between vegetable rows. In
Wisconsin, vetch is a host of chocolate spot, a bacterial disease
of snap beans; spot-resistant or -tolerant varieties are available.
Michigan farmers have successfully planted dry beans after hairy
vetch. In New England, broadcast vetch into late-season vegetables
in late Aug. Vetch can serve as an excellent mulch for tomatoes,
according to new USDA-ARS research in Maryland. Scientists mowed
vetch to 1-inch height in spring, then planted tomatoes without
tillage. Vetch formed brown, matted mulch within a few days, and
promoted much higher tomato yields than did plastic and paper
mulches.
Fruits -- Do not plant hairy vetch in orchards, because it is
a host of Turner's plant bug (Northeast).
ATTRA Summary: Cover Crops and Green Manures
The practices of cover cropping and green manuring can serve
a number of important functions in cropping systems. Any field or
forage crop grown to provide soil cover is a "cover crop." "Green
manures" are crops tilled into the soil while green, or soon after
flowering, to improve the soil. Since a crop grown as a cover
crop may later be soil-incorporated as a green manure, the two
practices are often referred to interchangeably.
Cover crops are grown mainly to prevent erosion of soil by
wind and water. But cover cropping and green manuring practices
perform other important functions in cropping systems which:
- improve soil quality and moisture-retention capacity
- add fertility and cycle plant nutrients
- aid in pest management
About the crop
Deep root system is sensitive to waterlogging; planting in poorly
drained soils can cause root rot and loss of stand. No P or K
should be needed when lupines are grown as cover or green manure.
Properly inoculated lupines can fix up to 70 lbs. N/A. Large
seed size may limit seeding rate. Poor competitor with weeds.
Susceptible to root rot fungi (Fusarium and Rhizoctonia),
especially on heavier, poorly drained soils. Also susceptible to
damage from seed corn maggot, potato leafhopper and tarnished plant
bug. However, weeds, diseases and insects should not be a concern
for fall-sown lupine covers (Northeast).
Seeding and management
As cover crop, lupines probably would be best seeded at
14,500-22,000 plants/A with 40-50 lbs. of oats/A in early Aug.
(Northeast). However, more research is needed on lupine seeding
rates for cover crop mixtures. Blue lupine may require lower
seeding rate than white lupine to produce adequate biomass.
For seed harvest, recommended population is 260,000 seeds/A
planted in 6- to 10-inch rows (plant early Apr. in southern New
England and up until early May in northern New England).
Can be seeded into relatively rough seedbed provided seed
depth is between 3/4 and 1 3/4 inches with good seed-soil contact.
No-till seedings are possible in previously cropped fields, but
adequate depth and seed-soil contact still are important.
If planted in late summer or in fall, lupines will continue
growing until killed by frost (Northeast). When planted in early
spring, they may provide plowdown N by Memorial Day for a
summer-annual cash crop in Northeast.
Newsgroups: bionet.plants,rec.gardens
From: dr@ducvax.auburn.edu
Subject: Kudzu (was: Re: gardening ethics)
Date: Thu, 3 Dec 1992 02:54:45 GMT
> I believe that the main motivation of introducing kudzu was as a
> conservation crop to prevent the soil erosion of your item 1. The
> conservation folks were right about it being a good cover crop!
That is more-or-less the impression I've always had; however I've
recently read a couple of period articles which make me think that
greater emphasis than is generally thought was placed on kudzu's value
as a forage crop. A masters thesis at Auburn, "A study of the effect
of various treatments on the rooting and survival of kudzu seedlings
and vine cuttings" (ca. 1941) had this introductory paragraph:
"Kudzu (Pueralia thumbergiana) is a plant which most agronomy
workers agree is well adapted as a perennial hay crop for the
Southern States. Kudzu does well on land that is too steep
or too low in fertility to support other hay crops. This is
especially true in the Piedmont region of the southeastern
states where steep slopes accompanied by a humid climate have
resulted in untold losses through erosion on farm lands in
this area."
More illustrative is a circular published (1939, and earlier) by the
Agricultural Experiment Station of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute
titled "Kudzu Its Value and Use in Alabama":
"Kudzu, a perennial legume that produces large yields of hay,
is adapted to temporary grazing by livestock, is an excellent
soiling crop and is sufficiently drout-resistant to produce
good yields when other crops fail. Its feeding value compares
favorably with other legumes. It is valuable for soil building,
stoping erosion, and planting on road banks, fills, and along
gullies..."
The remainder of the 20 pages are spent extolling (citing experimental
data) the many virtues of kudzu. The Hay Crop section gets 4 pages;
Grazing Crop, 6 pages; Soil Improvement, 2 pages; Propagation, 3 pages;
Erosion, 1 page; Care(!), 2 pages; summary, 1 page. Just before the
Summary, there is a cautionary section:
"Kudzu as a Pest"
"Some farmers have opinions that kudzu may become a pest,
may not be eradicated, and may spread where it is not wanted.
Such ideas are unfounded. It may be easily eradicated by
grazing or by plowing. Kudzu has been confined to the edges
of fields at Auburn for a period of 35 years and has never
become a pest or spread to areas where it was not wanted.
It may be confined indefinitely to terrace ridges in
a field simply by cultivating the field in row crops."
Read today, much of the circular seems a delicious satire - there are
cautions on how to avoid the loss of kudzu seedlings, warnings to not
allow livestock to overgraze, etc. The data shown in the report really
*is* impressive; I imagine that in its time kudzu seemed as much The Answer
as, in their times, <insert favorite innovation gone awry>. Rec.gardens
added to distribution, better historians may wish to add corrections.
D.R.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
David Roller | Bitnet = dr@auducvax | "Because we're all
Auburn Univ. | Internet = dr@ducvax.auburn.edu | in this together."
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Article 7700 (99 more) in rec.gardens:
From: Paul Harvey
Subject: green manure cover crops mail order source
Date: 23 May 92 04:36:59 GMT
Organization: The Duck Pond public unix: +1 408 249 9630, log in as 'guest'.
Harmony Farm Supply, pobox 460, graton, ca, 95444, CAT $2, 128 pgs
707-823-9125
sample prices per pound: (clovers are coated with rhizobium bacteria)
crimson clover $1.59
hykon rose clover $2.89
white dutch clover $2.99
annual rye grass $0.49
blando brome $2.92
bonsai dwarf fescue $2.29
calif red oats $0.40
creeping red fescue $1.20
yellow mustard $1.20
bell beans $0.40
purple vetch $1.20
calif poppy $7.00
Article 5482 (106 more) in rec.gardens:
From: Michael Dean Mefferd
Subject: Re: Green Manure Request
Summary: more on green manure request
Date: 27 Feb 92 15:40:24 GMT
> Can someone give me some advice on a good green manure for the part of
> the garden that I will not put into production this year?
> My aims are to keep the weeds down and to add humus and nutrients
> to the soil. I have heard that alphalfa (sp?) works well but is
> difficult to till under. Should I consider clover? and if so what
> kind? I will be using a 5 HP rear tine tiller and would like to avoid
> having to mow the stuff first before turning it under.
> I also want something with low carry-over.
Actually, alfalfa is a nice choice. You might want to reconsider mowing
before you till to reduce ware-and-tate on your tiller, reduce tangels
in the tines, and to speed decomposition. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is
kind of pretty. It has clusters of small purple flowers. I'd say the
best characteristic of alfalfa is that it grows very deep roots that
will bring up potash from deep within the soil. Often there is plenty
of K in the soil but it is not available to the more shallow rooted
garden plants. K is also very easily leached from the soil by watering
and rain.
You might even want to try a mix of cover crops. If you plant just
about any vetch (genus Vicia) you'll get some nitrogen fixing results as
well. Although legumes do have some good N fixation qualities, they can
become a nuisance. Of course this is true of most cover crops that you
let go to seed. You might even want to try several different cover
crops in the same season. Grow some vetch and then till in under. Then
grow some alfalfa and then till it under. Oh, by the way, vetch also
has pretty little purple colored flowers. If you want more information
on cover crops, send a request via E-mail and I'll get my literature
from home; it's fairly comprehensive.
Article 5595 (29 more) in rec.gardens:
From: Michael Dean Mefferd
Subject: cover crops/green manure crops
Keywords: cover crops/green manure crops
Date: 4 Mar 92 20:01:27 GMT
The following is a list of cover crops/green manure crops that you may
find useful. This material was extracted from Rodale's Organic
Gardening "Best Ways To Improve Your Soil" which Rodale Press, Inc gave
me at no cost.
Other sources that I've found useful are Rodale's Organic Gardening
"Today's Best Gardening Ideas", and _Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia
of Gardening and Landscaping Techniques_. I'm not selling Rodale Press,
Inc.
Keep in mind that the characteristics of each green manure crop will
vary according to climate and growing conditions. Before resorting to
the seed sources listed, you may want to check out local garden centers
and farm supply stores for varieties that will grow best in your area.
Contact your Cooperative Extension Service for local planting dates.
where: a) N fixed per year, average (lbs./acre)
b) soil preferences
c) soil fertility needs
d) tolerates low pH
e) drought tolerance
f) seeding rate (oz./100 sq. ft.)
g) depth to cover seed (in.)
h) when to sow
i) when to turn under
legumes:
alfalfa a) 158-250
b) well drained, loamy, neutral pH
c) high
d) no
e) high
f) 1/2
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
garden beans a) 40
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 4
g) 1 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
fava beans a) 71
b) widely adaptable
c) low
d) yes
e) medium
f) 8 inch centers
g) 1/8-1/4
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
field peas a) 32-48
b) heavy loam
c) low
d) no
e) medium
f) 4
g) 1 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
soybeans a) 58-105
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 2-3
g) 1 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
hairy vetch a) 80
b) widely adaptable, good in sandy soil
c) low
d) yes
e) high
f) 2 1/2
g) 3/4
h) spring, fall
i) fall or spring, spring
clover:
alsike a) 119
b) heavy loam
c) high
d) yes
e) high
f) 1/4
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
crimson a) 94
b) widely adaptable, good in sandy loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/2-2/3
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
red a) 103-151
b) loam
c) high
d) no
e) low
f) 1/3
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
sweet white a) 93-168
b) heavy loam
c) high
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/2
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
sweet yellow a) 93-168
b) widely adaptable
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 1
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
white dutch a) 103-133
b) heavy loam
c) high
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/4
g) 1/2
h) spring, summer
i) fall
white ladino a) 179
b) sandy loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/3
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
grains:
barley a) 0
b) loamy, neutral to alkaline pH
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) fall, spring
i) spring, fall
buckwheat a) 0
b) widely adaptable
c) low
d) yes
e) medium
f) 2 1/2
g) 3/4
h) spring, summer
i) summer, fall
millet a) 0
b) loam
c) low
d) yes
e) high
f) 2
g) 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
oats a) 0
b) widely adaptable
c) medium
d) yes
e) low
f) 4
g) 1
h) spring, fall
i) summer, spring
winter rye a) 0
b) widely adaptable
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) fall
i) spring
spring wheat a) 0
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) spring
i) fall
winter wheat a) 0
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) fall
i) spring
:
Article 7700 (99 more) in rec.gardens:
From: Paul Harvey
Subject: green manure cover crops mail order source
Date: 23 May 92 04:36:59 GMT
Organization: The Duck Pond public unix: +1 408 249 9630, log in as 'guest'.
Harmony Farm Supply, pobox 460, graton, ca, 95444, CAT $2, 128 pgs
707-823-9125
sample prices per pound: (clovers are coated with rhizobium bacteria)
crimson clover $1.59
hykon rose clover $2.89
white dutch clover $2.99
annual rye grass $0.49
blando brome $2.92
bonsai dwarf fescue $2.29
calif red oats $0.40
creeping red fescue $1.20
yellow mustard $1.20
bell beans $0.40
purple vetch $1.20
calif poppy $7.00
Article 5482 (106 more) in rec.gardens:
From: Michael Dean Mefferd
Subject: Re: Green Manure Request
Summary: more on green manure request
Date: 27 Feb 92 15:40:24 GMT
> Can someone give me some advice on a good green manure for the part of
> the garden that I will not put into production this year?
> My aims are to keep the weeds down and to add humus and nutrients
> to the soil. I have heard that alphalfa (sp?) works well but is
> difficult to till under. Should I consider clover? and if so what
> kind? I will be using a 5 HP rear tine tiller and would like to avoid
> having to mow the stuff first before turning it under.
> I also want something with low carry-over.
Actually, alfalfa is a nice choice. You might want to reconsider mowing
before you till to reduce ware-and-tate on your tiller, reduce tangels
in the tines, and to speed decomposition. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is
kind of pretty. It has clusters of small purple flowers. I'd say the
best characteristic of alfalfa is that it grows very deep roots that
will bring up potash from deep within the soil. Often there is plenty
of K in the soil but it is not available to the more shallow rooted
garden plants. K is also very easily leached from the soil by watering
and rain.
You might even want to try a mix of cover crops. If you plant just
about any vetch (genus Vicia) you'll get some nitrogen fixing results as
well. Although legumes do have some good N fixation qualities, they can
become a nuisance. Of course this is true of most cover crops that you
let go to seed. You might even want to try several different cover
crops in the same season. Grow some vetch and then till in under. Then
grow some alfalfa and then till it under. Oh, by the way, vetch also
has pretty little purple colored flowers. If you want more information
on cover crops, send a request via E-mail and I'll get my literature
from home; it's fairly comprehensive.
Article 5595 (29 more) in rec.gardens:
From: Michael Dean Mefferd
Subject: cover crops/green manure crops
Keywords: cover crops/green manure crops
Date: 4 Mar 92 20:01:27 GMT
The following is a list of cover crops/green manure crops that you may
find useful. This material was extracted from Rodale's Organic
Gardening "Best Ways To Improve Your Soil" which Rodale Press, Inc gave
me at no cost.
Other sources that I've found useful are Rodale's Organic Gardening
"Today's Best Gardening Ideas", and _Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia
of Gardening and Landscaping Techniques_. I'm not selling Rodale Press,
Inc.
Keep in mind that the characteristics of each green manure crop will
vary according to climate and growing conditions. Before resorting to
the seed sources listed, you may want to check out local garden centers
and farm supply stores for varieties that will grow best in your area.
Contact your Cooperative Extension Service for local planting dates.
where: a) N fixed per year, average (lbs./acre)
b) soil preferences
c) soil fertility needs
d) tolerates low pH
e) drought tolerance
f) seeding rate (oz./100 sq. ft.)
g) depth to cover seed (in.)
h) when to sow
i) when to turn under
legumes:
alfalfa a) 158-250
b) well drained, loamy, neutral pH
c) high
d) no
e) high
f) 1/2
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
garden beans a) 40
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 4
g) 1 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
fava beans a) 71
b) widely adaptable
c) low
d) yes
e) medium
f) 8 inch centers
g) 1/8-1/4
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
field peas a) 32-48
b) heavy loam
c) low
d) no
e) medium
f) 4
g) 1 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
soybeans a) 58-105
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 2-3
g) 1 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
hairy vetch a) 80
b) widely adaptable, good in sandy soil
c) low
d) yes
e) high
f) 2 1/2
g) 3/4
h) spring, fall
i) fall or spring, spring
clover:
alsike a) 119
b) heavy loam
c) high
d) yes
e) high
f) 1/4
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
crimson a) 94
b) widely adaptable, good in sandy loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/2-2/3
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
red a) 103-151
b) loam
c) high
d) no
e) low
f) 1/3
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
sweet white a) 93-168
b) heavy loam
c) high
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/2
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
sweet yellow a) 93-168
b) widely adaptable
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 1
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
white dutch a) 103-133
b) heavy loam
c) high
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/4
g) 1/2
h) spring, summer
i) fall
white ladino a) 179
b) sandy loam
c) medium
d) no
e) medium
f) 1/3
g) 1/2
h) spring, fall
i) fall, spring
grains:
barley a) 0
b) loamy, neutral to alkaline pH
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) fall, spring
i) spring, fall
buckwheat a) 0
b) widely adaptable
c) low
d) yes
e) medium
f) 2 1/2
g) 3/4
h) spring, summer
i) summer, fall
millet a) 0
b) loam
c) low
d) yes
e) high
f) 2
g) 1/2
h) spring
i) fall
oats a) 0
b) widely adaptable
c) medium
d) yes
e) low
f) 4
g) 1
h) spring, fall
i) summer, spring
winter rye a) 0
b) widely adaptable
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) fall
i) spring
spring wheat a) 0
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) spring
i) fall
winter wheat a) 0
b) loam
c) medium
d) no
e) high
f) 4
g) 3/4
h) fall
i) spring
: